Intro to Anatomical terminology
Anatomy: is the studies of the body parts.
Physiology is the study of how the body systems work together.
Levels of organization in a human
Subatomic particle---Atom-molecule- macromolecule - organelle - cell-tissue- organ - organ system-organism
Anatomy: is the studies of the body parts.
Physiology is the study of how the body systems work together.
Levels of organization in a human
Subatomic particle---Atom-molecule- macromolecule - organelle - cell-tissue- organ - organ system-organism
3 planes of the body are Sagittal, transverse, and coronal.
Sagittal is i straight cut down the middle along the medial.
Transverse is a horizontal cut usually separating the superior and inferior parts of the body.
Sagittal is i straight cut down the middle along the medial.
Transverse is a horizontal cut usually separating the superior and inferior parts of the body.
Chemistry of Life- Biomolecules
Carbohydrates- are used as a quick source of energy for the body these are mostly things like pasta and bread ect. Usually sugars such as glucose etc.
Lipids
A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Usually referred to as a Fat.
Used for storage insulation , and protection.
Nucleic Acids
Used in DNA and RNA sequences is used to determine traits past on through your bloodline.
Proteins - Proteins are large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.
Enzymes - are biological molecules (proteins) that act as catalysts and help complex reactions occur everywhere in life. Let's say you ate a piece of meat. Proteases would go to work and help break down the peptide bonds between the amino acids.
Unit 3
Here is a list of all the important cell organelles that are in all animal cells .
Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.
Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.
Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.
Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.
Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.
Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.
Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.
Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell.
Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.
Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.
Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.
Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.
Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.
Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.
Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.
Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell.
Types of cells
Red blood cells are round with a flattish, indented center, like doughnuts without a hole. Your health care provider can check on the size, shape, and health of your red blood cells using tests, such as the complete blood count screening.
Hemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells that carries oxygen. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide from your body, transporting it to the lungs for you to exhale.
Red blood cells are made inside your bones, in the bone marrow. They typically live for about 120 days, and then they die.
Red blood cells are round with a flattish, indented center, like doughnuts without a hole. Your health care provider can check on the size, shape, and health of your red blood cells using tests, such as the complete blood count screening.
Hemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells that carries oxygen. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide from your body, transporting it to the lungs for you to exhale.
Red blood cells are made inside your bones, in the bone marrow. They typically live for about 120 days, and then they die.
Cone cells are one of the two types of photoreceptor cells that are in the retina of the eye which are responsible for color vision as well as eye color sensitivity; they function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells that work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis.
White blood cells are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
All leukocytes are produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.
There are four categories of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle. Epithelial tissue protects your body from moisture loss, bacteria, and internal injury. There are two kinds of epithelial tissues:
Nervous tissue consists of two kinds of nerve cells:
There are four categories of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle. Epithelial tissue protects your body from moisture loss, bacteria, and internal injury. There are two kinds of epithelial tissues:
- Covering and lining epithelium covers or lines almost all of your internal and external body surfaces; for example, the outermost layer of your skin and other organs, and the internal surface lining of your lymph vessels and digestive tract.
- Glandular epithelium secretes hormones or other products such as stomach acid, sweat, saliva, and milk.
- Loose connective tissue holds structures together. For example, loose connective tissue holds the outer layer of skin to the underlying muscle tissue. This tissue is also found in your fat layers, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.
- Fibrous connective tissue also holds body parts together, but its structure is a bit more rigid than loose connective tissue. Fibrous connective tissue is found in ligaments, tendons, cartilage, and bone.
Nervous tissue consists of two kinds of nerve cells:
- Neurons are the basic structural unit of the nervous system. Each cell consists of the cell body, dendrites, and axon.
- Neuroglia, or glial cells, provide support functions for the neurons, such as insulation or anchoring neurons to blood vessels.
- Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and causes movements of the body.
- Cardiac muscle is found in the heart.
- Smooth muscle lines the walls of blood vessels and certain organs such as the digestive and urogenital tracts.
Homeostasis
Is the tendency of a system, especially the physiological system of higher animals, tomaintain internal stability, owing to the coordinated response of its parts to any situation orstimulus that would tend to disturb its normal condition or function.
Here are some homeostasis examples that occur in the human body:
Negative feedback mechanisms - Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or “ideal value”.
A good example of a negative feedback mechanism is a home thermostat (heating system). The thermostat contains the receptor (thermometer) and control center. If the heating system is set at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, the heat (effector) is turned on if the temperature drops below 70 degrees Fahrenheit. After the heater heats the house to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, it shuts off effectively maintaining the ideal temperature.
The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change . In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.
Positive feedback mechanisms
A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of a negative feedback mechanism. With negative feedback, the output reduces the original effect of the stimulus. In a positive feedback system, the output enhances the original stimulus. A good example of a positive feedback system is child birth. During labor, a hormone called Oxycontin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes more Oxycontin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of Oxycontin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.
Another good example of a positive feedback mechanism is blood clotting. Once a vessel is damaged, platelets start to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more platelets. The platelets continue to pile up and release chemicals until a clot is formed.
Just remember that positive feedback mechanisms enhance the original stimulus and negative feedback mechanisms inhibit it.
Here are some homeostasis examples that occur in the human body:
- Humans’ internal body temperature is a great example of homeostasis. When an individual is healthy, his or her body temperature retains a temperature 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. The body can control temperature by making or releasing heat.
- Glucose is a type of sugar that is found in the bloodstream, but the body must maintain proper glucose levels to ensure that a person remains healthy. When glucose levels get too high, the pancreas releases a hormone known as insulin. If blood glucose levels happen to drop too low, the liver converts glycogen in the blood to glucose again, raising the levels.
- When bacteria or viruses that can make you ill get into your body, your lymphatic system kicks in to help maintain homeostasis. It works to fight the infection before it has the opportunity to make you sick, ensuring that you remain healthy.
- The maintenance of healthy blood pressure is an example of homeostasis. The heart can sense changes in the blood pressure, causing it to send signals to the brain, which then sends back signals telling the heart how to respond. If blood pressure is too high, naturally the heart should slow down; while if it is too low, the heart wants to speed up.
- A human’s body contains chemicals known as acids and bases, and a proper balance of these is required for the body to function optimally. Lungs and kidneys are two of the organ systems that regulate acids and bases within the body.
- More than half of a human’s body weight percentage is water, and maintaining the correct balance of water is an example of homeostasis. Cells that have too much water in them bloat and can even blow up. Cells with too little water can end up shrinking. Your body maintains a proper water balance so that neither of these situations occurs.
- Calcium levels in the blood must be maintained at proper levels. The body regulates those levels in an example of homeostasis. When levels decrease, the parathyroid releases hormones. If calcium levels become too high, the thyroid helps out by fixing calcium in the bones and lowering blood calcium levels.
- Exercising causes the body to maintain homeostasis by sending lactate to the muscles to give them energy. Over time, this also signals to the brain that it is time to stop exercising, so that the muscles can get the oxygen they need.
- The nervous system helps keep homeostasis in breathing patterns. Because breathing is involuntary, the nervous system ensures that the body is getting much needed oxygen through breathing the appropriate amount of oxygen.
- When toxins get into your blood, they disrupt your body’s homeostasis. The human body, however, responds by getting rid of these toxins by use of the urinary system. An individual simply urinates the toxins and other nasty things from the blood, restoring homeostasis to the human body.
Negative feedback mechanisms - Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or “ideal value”.
A good example of a negative feedback mechanism is a home thermostat (heating system). The thermostat contains the receptor (thermometer) and control center. If the heating system is set at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, the heat (effector) is turned on if the temperature drops below 70 degrees Fahrenheit. After the heater heats the house to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, it shuts off effectively maintaining the ideal temperature.
The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change . In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.
Positive feedback mechanisms
A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of a negative feedback mechanism. With negative feedback, the output reduces the original effect of the stimulus. In a positive feedback system, the output enhances the original stimulus. A good example of a positive feedback system is child birth. During labor, a hormone called Oxycontin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes more Oxycontin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of Oxycontin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.
Another good example of a positive feedback mechanism is blood clotting. Once a vessel is damaged, platelets start to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more platelets. The platelets continue to pile up and release chemicals until a clot is formed.
Just remember that positive feedback mechanisms enhance the original stimulus and negative feedback mechanisms inhibit it.
Unit 5 : Integumentary system
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.
The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area of about 20 square feet. The skin protects us from microbes and the elements, helps regulate body temperature, and permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold.
Skin has three layers:
he skin is one of the first defense mechanisms in your immune system. Tiny glands in the skin secrete oils that enhance the barrier function of the skin. Immune cells live in the skin and provide the first line of defense against infections.
By helping to synthesize and absorb vitamin D, the integumentary system works with the digestive system to encourage the uptake of calcium from our diet. This substance enters the bloodstream though the capillary networks in the skin. Healthy functioning of your skin also is related to the digestive system because the digestion and assimilation of dietary fats and oils are essential for the body to be able to make the protective oils for the skin and hair.
The integumentary system also works closely with the circulatory system and the surface capillaries through your body. Because certain substances can enter the bloodstream through the capillary networks in the skin, patches can be used to deliver medications in this manner for conditions ranging from heart problems (nitroglycerin) to smoking cessation (nicotine patches).
The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area of about 20 square feet. The skin protects us from microbes and the elements, helps regulate body temperature, and permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold.
Skin has three layers:
- The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone.
- The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
- The deeper subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is made of fat and connective tissue.
he skin is one of the first defense mechanisms in your immune system. Tiny glands in the skin secrete oils that enhance the barrier function of the skin. Immune cells live in the skin and provide the first line of defense against infections.
By helping to synthesize and absorb vitamin D, the integumentary system works with the digestive system to encourage the uptake of calcium from our diet. This substance enters the bloodstream though the capillary networks in the skin. Healthy functioning of your skin also is related to the digestive system because the digestion and assimilation of dietary fats and oils are essential for the body to be able to make the protective oils for the skin and hair.
The integumentary system also works closely with the circulatory system and the surface capillaries through your body. Because certain substances can enter the bloodstream through the capillary networks in the skin, patches can be used to deliver medications in this manner for conditions ranging from heart problems (nitroglycerin) to smoking cessation (nicotine patches).
Unit 6: The muscular system
The muscular system makes up nearly half the weight of the human body, this is why when we train we sometimes put on weight instead of losing it. We put on muscle weight.
The muscles provide the forces that enable the body to move. Muscles stretch across joints to link one bone with another and work in groups to respond to nerve impulses.
Skeletal muscle
There are nearly 650 skeletal muscles in the human body!
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton, they work in pairs: one muscle moves the bone in one direction and the other moves it back again. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles - in other words we think about what movements we want to make (at least, usually!) and send messages via our nervous system to tell the appropriate muscle(s) to contract. Muscle contractions can be short, single contractions or longer ones.
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is found in our internal organs: in our digestive system, our blood vessels, our bladder, our respiratory organs and, in a female, the uterus. Smooth muscle can stretch and maintain tension over extended periods. Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles - in other words we do not have to think about contracting them because they are controlled automatically by the nervous system.
Cardiac muscle
As the name should tell you, cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It can stretch, just like smooth muscle, and contract like skeletal muscle. It is a twitch muscle - it only does short single contractions.Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary
The muscles provide the forces that enable the body to move. Muscles stretch across joints to link one bone with another and work in groups to respond to nerve impulses.
Skeletal muscle
There are nearly 650 skeletal muscles in the human body!
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton, they work in pairs: one muscle moves the bone in one direction and the other moves it back again. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles - in other words we think about what movements we want to make (at least, usually!) and send messages via our nervous system to tell the appropriate muscle(s) to contract. Muscle contractions can be short, single contractions or longer ones.
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is found in our internal organs: in our digestive system, our blood vessels, our bladder, our respiratory organs and, in a female, the uterus. Smooth muscle can stretch and maintain tension over extended periods. Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles - in other words we do not have to think about contracting them because they are controlled automatically by the nervous system.
Cardiac muscle
As the name should tell you, cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It can stretch, just like smooth muscle, and contract like skeletal muscle. It is a twitch muscle - it only does short single contractions.Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary
The muscular system works with a lot of the other systems!
It works with the skeletal system to provide skeletal movement.
It works with the digestive system to control entrances and exits of digestive tract
It works with the endocrine system to produce heat
It works with the nervous system to sense things
It works with the respiratory system to allow the diaphragm to expand.
It works with the cardiovascular system to provide circulation.
It works with the skeletal system to provide skeletal movement.
It works with the digestive system to control entrances and exits of digestive tract
It works with the endocrine system to produce heat
It works with the nervous system to sense things
It works with the respiratory system to allow the diaphragm to expand.
It works with the cardiovascular system to provide circulation.
Nervous
Function:The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its parts.
The Anatomic Nervous System: the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.
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